Cassius Dio
Roman History
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Book LI (51)
The following is contained in the Fifty-first of Dio's Rome:—
1. How Caesar after his victory at Actium settled matters of immediate
concern (chaps. 1-4).
2. Concerning Antony and Cleopatra and their movements after their
defeat (chaps. 5-8).
3. How Antony, defeated in Egypt, killed himself (chaps. 9-10).
4. How Caesar subdued Egypt (chaps. 15-18).
5. How Caesar came to Rome and celebrated his triumph (chap. 21).
6. How the Curia Iulia was dedicated (chap. 22).
7. How Moesia was conquered (chaps. 23-27).
Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Caesar (III) and
M. Valerius Corvinus Messalla, together with two additional years, in
which there were the magistrates (consuls) here enumerated:—
B.C.
31
Caesar (IV), M. Licinius M. F. Crassus.
31
Caesar (V), Sextus Apuleius Sexti F.
Such was the naval battle in which they engaged on the second of
September. I do not mention this date without a particular reason, nor
am I, in fact, accustomed to do so; but Caesar now for the first time
held all the power alone, and consequently the years of his reign are
properly reckoned from that day. In honour of the day he dedicated to
Apollo of Actium from the total number of the captured vessels a
trireme, a quadrireme, and the other ships in order up to one of ten
banks of oars; and he built a larger temple. He also instituted a
quadrennial musical and gymnastic contest, including horse-racing,— a
"sacred" festival, as they call those in connexion with which there is
a distribution of food,— and entitled it Actia. Furthermore, he founded
a city on the site of his camp by gathering together some of the
neighbouring peoples and dispossessing others, and he named it
Nicopolis. On the spot where he had had his tent, he laid a foundation
of square stones, adorned it with the captured beaks, and erected on
it, open to the sky, a shrine of Apollo.
But these things were done later. At the time he sent a part of the
fleet in pursuit of Antony and Cleopatra; these ships, accordingly,
followed after the fugitives, but when it became clear that they were
not going to overtake them, they returned. With his remaining vessels
he captured the enemy's entrenchments, meeting with no opposition
because of their small numbers, and then overtook and without a battle
won over the rest of the army, which was retreating into Macedonia.
There were various important contingents that had already escaped; of
these the Romans fled to Antony and the allies to their homes. The
latter, however, no longer fought against Caesar, but both they and all
the peoples which had long been subject to Rome remained quiet and made
terms, some at once and others later. Caesar now punished the cities by
levying money and taking away the remnant of authority over their
citizens that their assemblies still possessed. He deprived all the
princes and kings except Amyntas and Archelaus of the lands which they
had received from Antony, and he also deposed from their thrones
Philopator, the son of Tarcondimotus, Lycomedes, the king of a part of
Cappadocian Pontus, and Alexander, the brother of Iamblichus. The
last-named, because he had secured his realm as a reward for accusing
Caesar, he led in his triumphal procession and afterwards put to death.
He gave the kingdom of Lycomedes to one Medeius, because the latter had
detached the Mysians in Asia from Antony before the naval battle and
with them had waged war upon those who were on Antony's side. He gave
the people of Cydonia and Lampe their liberty, because they had
rendered have some assistance; and in the case of the Lampaeans he
helped them to found anew their city, which had been destroyed. As for
the senators and knights and the other leaders who had aided Antony in
any way, he imposed fines upon many of them, slew many others, and some
he actually spared. In this last class Sosius was a conspicuous
example; for though he had often fought against Caesar and was now
hiding in exile and was not found until later, nevertheless he was
saved. Likewise one Marcus Scaurus, a half-brother of Sextus on his
mother's side, had been condemned to death, but was later released for
the sake of his mother Mucia. Of those who were punished, the Aquilii
Flori and Curio were most talked about, the latter because he was a son
of that Curio who had once been of great assistance to the former
Caesar, and the Flori because, when Octavius commanded that the one of
them who should draw the lot should be slain, they both perished. They
were father and son, and when the son, without waiting for the lot,
voluntarily offered himself to the executioner, the father was
exceedingly distressed and died upon his son's body by his own hand.
These men, then, fared in the manner described. The mass of Antony's
soldiers was incorporated in Caesar's legions, and he later sent back
to Italy the citizens of both forces who were over the military age,
without giving them anything, and scattered the rest. For they had
caused him to fear them in Sicily after his victory there, and he was
afraid they might create a disturbance again; hence he made haste,
before they gave the least sign of an uprising, to discharge some
entirely from the service and to scatter the majority of the others. As
he was still at this time suspicious of the freedmen, he remitted to
them the fourth payment which they still owed of the money levied upon
them. So they no longer bore him any grudge because of what had been
taken from them, but rejoiced as if they had actually received the
amount they had been relieved from contributing. The men still left in
the rank and file also made no trouble, partly because they were held
in check by their commanders, but chiefly because of their hopes of
gaining the wealth of Egypt. The men, however, who had helped Caesar to
gain his victory and had been dismissed from the service were irritated
at having obtained no reward, and not much later they began to mutiny.
But Caesar was suspicious of them and, since he feared that Maecenas,
to whom on this occasion also Rome and the rest of Italy had been
entrusted, would be despised by them inasmuch as he was only a knight,
he sent Agrippa to Italy, ostensibly on some other mission. He also
gave to Agrippa and to Maecenas so great authority in all matters that
they might even read beforehand the letters which he wrote to the
senate and to others and then change whatever they wished in them. To
this end they also received from him a ring, so that they might be able
to seal the letters again. For he had caused to be made in duplicate
the seal which he used most at that time, the design being a sphinx,
the same on each copy; since it was not till later that he had his own
likeness engraved upon his seal and sealed everything with that then.
It was this latter that the emperors who succeeded him employed, except
Galba, who adopted a seal which his ancestors had used, its device
being a dog looking out of a ship's prow. It was the custom of Caesar
in writing to these two ministers and to his other intimate friends,
whenever there was need of giving them secret information, to
substitute in each case for the appropriate letter in a word the letter
next in order after it.
Now Caesar, believing there would be no further danger from the
veterans, administered affairs in Greece and took part in the Mysteries
of the two goddesses. He then went over into Asia and settled matters
there also, keeping watch meanwhile upon Antony's movements; for he had
not yet learned anything definite regarding the refuge to which the
other had fled, and so he was making preparations to proceed against
him in case he should receive any precise information. But meanwhile
the veterans made an open demonstration now that he was gone so far
away from them, and he began to fear that if they found a leader they
would cause some mischief. Consequently he assigned to others the task
of seeking Antony, and hurried to Italy himself, in the middle of the
winter of the year in which he was holding office for the fourth time,
along with Marcus Crassus. For Crassus, in spite of having sided with
Sextus and with Antony, was then his fellow-consul even though he had
not held the praetorship. Caesar, then, came to Brundisium, but
proceeded no farther. For when the senate ascertained that his ship was
nearing Italy, its members went there to meet him, all except the
tribunes and two praetors, who remained in Rome in pursuance of a
decree; and the equestrian order as well as the greater part of the
populace and still others, some as envoys and some of their own accord,
came together there in large numbers, with the result that there was no
further act of rebellion on the part of any one in view of his arrival
and of the enthusiasm of the majority. For the veterans, too, had come
to Brundisium, some them induced by fear, some by hopes, and still
others in response to a summons and Caesar gave money to some of them,
while to those who had served with him throughout his campaigns he also
made an additional assignment of land. For by turning out of their
homes the communities in Italy which had sided with Antony he was able
to grant to his soldiers their cities and their farms. To most of those
who were dispossessed he made compensation by permitting them to settle
in Dyrrachium, Philippi, and elsewhere, while to the remainder he
either granted money for their land or else promised to do so; for
though he had acquire great sums by his victory, yet he was spending
still more by far. For this reason he advertised at auction both his
own possessions and those of his companions, in order that any one who
desired to purchase any of them, or to take any of them in exchange for
something else, might do so. And although nothing was purchased, and
nothing was taken in exchange, either — for who, pray, would ever have
dared follow either course? — yet he secured by this means a plausible
excuse for delay in carrying out his promise, and later he discharged
the debt out of the spoils of Egypt.
After settling this and the other business that pressed, giving to
those who had received a grant of amnesty the right also to live in
Italy, not before permitted them, and forgiving the populace which had
remained behind in Rome for not having gone to meet him, he set out
once more for Greece on the thirtieth day after his arrival. Then,
because it was winter, he carried his ships across the isthmus of the
Peloponnesus and got back to Asia so quietly that Antony and Cleopatra
learned at one and the same time both of his departure and of his
return. They, it appears, when they had made their escape from the
naval battle at Actium, had gone as far as the Peloponnesus together;
from there, after they had first dismissed a number of their associates
whom they suspected,— many, too, withdrew against their wishes,—
Cleopatra had hastened to Egypt, for fear that her subjects would begin
a revolt if they heard of the disaster before her arrival. And in order
to make her approach, too, safe she crowned her prows with garlands as
if she had actually won a victory, and had songs of triumph chanted to
the accompaniment of flute-players. But as soon as she had reached
safety, she slew many of the foremost men, inasmuch as they had always
been displeased with her and were now elated over her disaster; and she
proceeded to gather vast wealth from their estates and from various
other sources both profane and sacred, sparing not even the most holy
shrines, and also to fit out her forces and to look about for allies.
She put to death the Armenian king and sent his head to the Mede, who
might be induced thereby, she thought, to aid them. Antony, for his
part, had sailed to Pinarius Scarpus in Africa and to the army under
Scarpus' command previously assembled there for the protection of
Egypt. But when this general not only refused to receive him but
furthermore slew the men sent ahead by Antony, besides executing some
of the soldiers under his command who showed displeasure at this act,
then Antony, too, proceeded to Alexandria without having accomplished
anything.
Now among the other preparations made for speedy warfare, they enrolled
among the youths of military age, Cleopatra her son Caesarion and
Antony his son Antyllus, who had been born to him by Fulvia and was
then with him. Their purpose was to arouse the enthusiasm of the
Egyptians, who would feel that they had at last a man for their king,
and to cause the rest to continue the struggle with these boys as their
leaders, in case anything untoward should happen to the parents. Now as
for the lads, this proved one of the causes of their undoing; for
Caesar spared neither of them, claiming that they were men and were
clothed with a sort of leadership. But to return to Antony and
Cleopatra, they were indeed making their preparations with a view to
waging war in Egypt both on sea and on land, and to this end they were
calling to their aid the neighbouring tribes and the kings who were
friendly to them; but they were also making ready, none the less, to
sail to Spain if the need should arise, and to stir up a revolt there
by their vast resources of money and by other means, or even to change
the base of their operations to Red Sea. And in order that while
engaged in these plans they might escape observation for the longest
possible time or even deceive Caesar in some way or actually slay him
by treachery, they despatched emissaries who carried peace proposals to
him and bribes of money to his followers. Meanwhile Cleopatra, on her
part, unknown to Antony, sent to him a golden sceptre and a golden
crown together with the royal throne, signifying that through them she
offered him the kingdom as well; for she hoped that even if he did hate
Antony, he would yet take pity on her at least. Caesar accepted her
gifts as a good omen, but made no answer to Antony; to Cleopatra,
however, although he publicly sent threatening messages, including the
announcement that, if she would give up her armed forces and renounce
her sovereignty, he would consider what ought to be done in her case,
he secretly sent word that, if she would kill Antony, he would grant
her pardon and leave her realm inviolate.
While these negotiations were proceeding, the Arabians, instigated by
Quintus Didius, the governor of Syria, burned the ships in the Arabian
Gulf which had been built for the voyage to the Red Sea, and the
peoples and princes without exception refused their assistance to
Antony. Indeed, I cannot but marvel that, while a great many others,
though they had received numerous gifts from Antony and Cleopatra, now
left them in the lurch, yet the men who were being kept for
gladiatorial combats, who were among the most despised, showed the
utmost zeal in their behalf and fought most bravely. These men, I
should explain, were training in Cyzicus for the triumphal games which
they were expecting to hold in celebration of Caesar's overthrow, and
as soon as they became aware of what had taken place, they set out for
Egypt to bear aid to their rulers. Many were their exploits against
Amyntas in Galatia and many against the sons of Tarcondimotus in
Cilicia, who had been their strongest friends but now in view of the
changed circumstances had gone over to the other side; many also were
their exploits against Didius, who undertook to prevent their passing
through Syria; nevertheless, they were unable to force their way
through to Egypt. Yet even when they were surrounded on all sides, not
even then would they accept any terms of surrender, though Didius made
them many promises. Instead, they sent for Antony, feeling that they
would fight better even in Syria if he were with them; and then, when
he neither came himself nor sent them any message, they at last decided
that he had perished and reluctantly made terms, on condition that they
were never to fight as gladiators. And they received from Didius
Daphne, the suburb of Antioch, to dwell in until the matter should be
brought to Caesar's attention.
These men were later deceived by Messalla and sent to various places
under the pretext that they were to be enlisted in the legions, and
were then put out of the way in some convenient manner. Antony and
Cleopatra, for their part, upon hearing from envoys the demands which
Caesar made of them, sent to him again. Cleopatra promised to give him
large amounts of money, and Antony reminded him of their friendship and
kinship, made a defence also of his connexion with the Egyptian woman,
and recounted all the amorous adventures and youthful pranks they had
shared together. Finally, he surrounded to him Publius Turullius, who
was a senator and one of the assassins of Caesar and was then living
with Antony as a friend; and he offered to take his own life, if in
that way Cleopatra might be saved. Caesar put Turullius to death (it
chanced that this man had cut wood for the fleet from the grove of
Aesculapius in Cos, and since he was executed in Cos, he was thought to
be making amends to the god as well as to Caesar), but this time also
he gave no answer to Antony. So Antony despatched a third embassy,
sending him his son Antyllus with much gold. Caesar accepted the money,
but sent the boy back empty-handed, giving him no answer. To Cleopatra,
however, as in the first instance, so again on the second and third
occasions, he sent many threats and promises alike. Yet he was afraid,
even so, that they might perhaps despair of obtaining pardon for him
and so hold out, and either prove superior by their own efforts, or set
sail for Spain and Gaul, or else might destroy their wealth, which he
kept hearing was of bast extent; for Cleopatra had collected it all in
her tomb which she was constructing in the royal grounds, and she
threatened to burn it all up with her in case she should fail of even
the slightest of her demands. So, he sent Thyrsus, a freedman of his,
to say many kind things to her and in particular to tell her that he
was in love with her. He hoped that by this means at least, since she
thought it her due to be loved by all mankind, she would make away with
Antony and keep herself and her money unharmed. And so it proved.
But before this happened, Antony learned that Cornelius Gallus had
taken over Scarpus' army and had suddenly marched with these troops
upon Paraetonium and occupied it. Hence, although he wished to set out
for Syria in response to the summons of the gladiators, he did not go
thither, but proceeded against Gallus, in the hope of winning over the
troops without a struggle, if possible, inasmuch as they had been with
him on campaigns and were fairly well disposed toward him, but
otherwise of subduing them by force, since he was leading against them
a large force both of ships and of infantry. Nevertheless, he was
unable even to talk with them, although he approached their ramparts
and raised a mighty shout; for Gallus ordered his trumpeters to sound
their instruments all together and gave no one a chance to hear a word.
Moreover, Antony also failed in a sudden assault and later suffered a
reverse with his ships as well. Gallus, it seems, caused chains to be
stretched at night across the mouth of the harbour under water, and
then took no measures openly to guard against his opponents but
contemptuously allowed them to sail in with perfect immunity. When they
were inside, however, he drew up the chains by means of machines, and
encompassing their ships on all sides — from the land, from the houses,
and from the sea — he burned some and sank others. In the meantime
Caesar took Pelusium, ostensibly by storm, but really because it was
betrayed by Cleopatra. For she saw that no one came to their aid and
perceived that Caesar was not to be withstood; and, most important of
all, she listened to the message sent her through Thyrsus, and believed
that she was really beloved, in the first place, because she wished to
be, and, in the second place, because she had in the same manner
enslaved Caesar's father and Antony. Consequently she expected to gain
not only forgiveness and the sovereignty over the Egyptians, but the
empire of the Romans as well. So she yielded Pelusium to him at once;
and later, when he marched against the city, she prevented the
Alexandrians from making a sortie. She accomplished this secretly, of
course, since, to judge by the outcry she made, she exhorted them
vigorously to do so.
At the news concerning Pelusium Antony returned from Paraetonium and
went to meet Caesar in front of Alexandria, and attacking him with his
cavalry, while the other was wearied from his march, he won the day.
Encouraged by this success, and because he had shot arrows into
Caesar's camp carrying leaflets which promised the men six thousand
sesterces, he joined battle also with his infantry and was defeated.
For Caesar of his own accord personally read the leaflets to his
soldiers, at the same time reviling Antony and trying to turn them to a
feeling of shame for the suggested treachery and of enthusiasm for
himself; the result was that they were fired by zeal through this very
incident, both by reason of their indignation at the attempt made upon
their loyalty and by way of demonstrating that they were not subject to
the suspicion of being base traitors. After this unexpected setback,
Antony took refuge in his fleet, and was preparing to give battle on
the sea or at any rate to sail to Spain. But Cleopatra, upon perceiving
this, caused the ships to desert, and she herself rushed suddenly into
the mausoleum, pretending that she feared Caesar and desired by some
means or other to forestall him by taking her own life, but really as
an invitation to Antony to enter there also. He had a suspicion, to be
sure, that he was being betrayed, but actually pitied her more, one
might say, than himself. Cleopatra, doubtless, was fully aware of this
and hoped that if he should be informed that she was dead, he would not
wish to survive her, but would die at once. Accordingly she hastened
into the tomb with a eunuch and two maidservants, and from there sent a
message to him from which he should infer that she was dead. And he,
when he heard it, did not delay, but was seized by a desire to follow
her in death. He first asked one of the bystanders to slay him; but
when the man drew his sword and slew himself, Antony wished to imitate
his courage and so gave himself a wound and fell upon his face, causing
the bystanders to believe that he was dead. At this an outcry was
raised, and Cleopatra, hearing it, peered out over the top of the tomb.
By a certain contrivance its doors, once closed, could not be opened
again, but the upper part of it next to the roof was not yet fully
completed. Now when some of them saw her peering out at this point,
they raised a shout so that even Antony heard. So he, learning that she
survived, stood up, as if he had still the power to live; but, as had
lost much blood, he despaired of his life and besought the bystanders
to carry him to the monument and to hoist him up by the ropes that were
hanging there to lift the stone blocks.
So Antony died there in Cleopatra's bosom; and she now felt a certain
confidence in Caesar, and immediately informed him of what had taken
placed; still, she was not altogether convinced that she would suffer
no harm. She accordingly kept herself within the building, in order
that, even if there should be no other motive for her preservation, she
might at least purchase pardon and her kingdom through his fear for the
money. So thoroughly mindful was she even then, in the midst of her
dire misfortune, of her royal rank, and chose rather to die with the
name and dignity of a sovereign than to live in a private station. At
all events, she kept at hand fire to consume her wealth, and asps and
other reptiles to destroy herself, and she had the latter tried on
human beings, to see in what way they killed in each case. Now Caesar
was anxious not only to get possession of her treasures but also to
seize her alive and to carry her back for his triumph, yet he was
unwilling to appear to have tricked her himself after having given her
a kind of pledge, since he wished to treat her as a captive and to a
certain extent subdued against her will. He therefore sent to her Gaius
Proculeius, a knight, and Epaphroditus, a freedman, giving them
directions as to what they were to say and do. Following out this plan,
they obtained an audience with Cleopatra, and after discussing with her
some moderate proposals they suddenly seized her before any agreement
was reached. After this they put out of her way everything by means of
which she could cause her own death and allowed her to spend some days
where she was, occupied in embalming Antony's body; then they took her
to the palace, but did not remove any of her accustomed retinue or
attendants, in order that she should entertain more hope than ever of
accomplishing all she desired, and so should do no harm to herself. At
any rate, when she expressed a desire to appear before Caesar and to
have an interview with him, she gained her request; and to deceive her
still more, he promised that he would come to her himself.
She accordingly prepared a splendid apartment and a costly couch, and
moreover arrayed herself with affected negligence,— indeed, her
mourning garb wonderfully became her,— and seated herself upon the
couch; beside her she placed many images of his father, of all kinds,
and in her bosom she put all the letters that his father had sent her.
When, after this, Caesar entered, she leaped gracefully to her feet and
cried: "Hail, master — for Heaven has granted you the mastery and taken
it from me. But surely you can see with your own eyes how your father
looked when he visited me on many occasions, and you have heard people
tell how he honoured me in various ways and made me queen of the
Egyptians. That you may, however, earn something about me from him
himself, take and read the letters which he wrote me with his own hand."
After she had spoken thus, she proceeded to read many passionate
expressions of Caesar's. And now she would lament and kiss the letters,
and again she would fall before his images and do them reverence. She
kept turning her eyes toward Caesar and bewailing her fate in musical
accents. She spoke in melting tones, saying at one time, "Of what avail
to me, Caesar, are these thy letters?" and at anyone, "But in this man
here thou also art alive for me"; again, "Would that I had died before
thee," and still again, "But if I have him, I have thee."
Such were the subtleties of speech and of attitude which she employed,
and sweet were the glances she cast at him and the words she murmured
to him. Now Caesar was not insensible to the ardour of her speech and
the appeal to his passions, but he pretended to be; and letting his
eyes rest upon the ground, he merely said: "Be of good cheer, woman,
and keep a stout heart; for you shall suffer no harm." She was greatly
distressed because he would neither look at her nor say anything about
the kingdom nor even utter a word of love, and falling at his knees,
she said with an outburst of sobbing: "I neither wish to live nor can I
live, Caesar. But this favour I beg of you in memory of your father,
that, since Heaven gave me to Antony after him, I may also die with
Antony. Would that I had perished then, straightway after Caesar! But
since it was decreed by fate that I should suffer this affliction also,
send me to Antony; grudge me not burial with him, in order that, as it
is because of him I die, so I may dwell with him even in Hades."
Such words she uttered, expecting to move him to pity, but Caesar made
no answer to them; fearing, however, that she might destroy herself, he
exhorted her again to be of good cheer, and not only did not remove any
of her attendants but also took special care of her, that she might add
brilliance to his triumph. This purpose she suspected, and regarding
that fate as worse than a thousand deaths, she conceived a genuine
desire to die, and not only addressed many entreaties to Caesar that
she might perish in some manner or other, but also devised many plans
herself. But when she could accomplish nothing, she feigned a change of
heart, pretending to set great hopes in him and also in Livia. She said
she would sail of her own free will, and she made ready some treasured
articles of adornment to use as gifts, in the hope that by these means
she might inspire belief that it was not her purpose to die, and so
might be less closely guarded and thus be able to destroy herself. And
so it came about. For as soon as the others and Epaphroditus, to whose
charge she had been committed, had come to believe that she really felt
as she pretended to, and neglected to keep a careful watch, she made
her preparations to die as painlessly as possible. First she gave a
sealed paper, in which she begged Caesar to order that she be buried
beside Antony, to Epaphroditus himself to deliver, pretending that it
contained some other matter, and then, having by this excuse freed
herself of his presence, she set of the her task. She put on her most
beautiful apparel, arranged her body in most seemly fashion, took in
her hands all the emblems of royalty, and so died.
No one knows clearly in what way she perished, for the only marks on
her body were slight pricks on the arm. Some say she applied to herself
an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar, or perhaps
hidden in some flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a pin, with
which she was wont to fasten her hair, with some poison possessed of
such a property that in ordinary circumstances it would not injure the
body at all, but if it came into contact with even a drop of blood
would destroy the body very quietly and painlessly; and that previous
to this time she had worn it in her hair as usual, but now had made a
slight scratch on her arm and had dipped the pin in the blood. In this
or in some very similar way she perished, and her two handmaidens with
her. As for the eunuch, he had of his own accord delivered himself up
to the serpents at the very time of Cleopatra's arrest, and after being
bitten by them had leaped into a coffin already prepared for him. When
Caesar heard of Cleopatra's death, he was astounded, and not only
viewed her body but also made use of drugs and Psylli in the hope that
she might revive. These Psylli are males, for there is no woman born in
their tribe, and they have the power to suck out any poison of any
reptile, if use is made of them immediately, before the victim dies;
and they are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such creature.
They are propagated from one another and they test their offspring
either by having them thrown among serpents as soon as they are born or
else by having their swaddling-clothes thrown upon serpents; for the
reptiles in the one case do no harm to the child, and in the other case
are benumbed by its clothing. So much for this matter. But Caesar, when
he could not in any way resuscitate Cleopatra, felt both admiration and
pity for her, and was excessively grieved on his own account, as if he
had been deprived of all the glory of his victory.
Thus Antony and Cleopatra, who had caused many evils to the Egyptians
and many to the Romans, made war and met their death in the manner I
have described; and they were both embalmed in the same fashion and
buried in the same tomb. Their qualities of character and the fortunes
of their lives were as follows. Antony had no superior in comprehending
his duty, yet he committed many acts of folly. He sometimes
distinguished himself for bravery, yet often failed through cowardice.
He was characterized equally by greatness of soul and by servility of
mind. He would plunder the property of others and would squander his
own. He showed compassion to many without cause and punished even more
without justice. Consequently, though he rose from utter weakness to
great power, and from the depths of poverty to great riches, he derived
no profit from either circumstance, but after hoping to gain
single-handed the empire of the Romans, he took his own life. Cleopatra
was of insatiable passion and insatiable avarice; she was swayed often
by laudable ambition, but often by overweening effrontery. By love she
gained the title of Queen of the Egyptians, and when she hoped by the
same means to win also that of Queen of the Romans, she failed of this
and lost the other besides. She captivated the two greatest Romans of
her day, and because of the third she destroyed herself.
Such were these two and such was their end. Of their children, Antyllus
was slain immediately, though he was betrothed to the daughter of
Caesar and had taken refuge in his father's shrine, which Cleopatra had
built; and Caesarion while fleeing to Ethiopia was overtaken on the
road and murdered. Cleopatra was married to Juba, the son of Juba; for
to this man who had been brought up in Italy and had been with him on
campaigns, Caesar gave both the maid and the kingdom of his fathers,
and as a favour to them spared the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. To
his nieces, the daughters whom Octavia had had by Antony and had
reared, he assigned money from their father's estate. He also ordered
Antony's freedmen to give at once to Iullus, the son of Antony and
Fulvia, everything which by law they would have been required to
bequeath him at their death. As for the rest who had been connected
with Antony's cause up to this time, he punished some and pardoned
others, either from personal motives or to oblige his friends. And
since there were found at the court many children of princes and kings
who were being kept there, some as hostages and others out of a spirit
of arrogance, he sent some back to their homes, joined others in
marriage with one another, and retained still others. I shall omit most
of these cases and mention only two. Of his own accord he restored
Iotape to the Median king, who had found an asylum with him after his
defeat; but he refused the request of Artaxes that his brothers be sent
to him, because this prince had put to death the Romans left behind in
Armenia.
This was the disposition he made of such captives; and in the case of
the Egyptians and the Alexandrians, he spared them all, so that none
perished. The truth was that he did not see fit to inflict any
irreparable injury upon a people so numerous, who might prove very
useful to the Romans in many ways; nevertheless, he offered as a
pretext for his kindness their god Serapis, their founder Alexander,
and, in the third place, their fellow-citizen Areius, of whose learning
and companionship he availed himself. The speech in which he proclaimed
to them his pardon he delivered in Greek, so that they might understand
him. After this he viewed the body of Alexander and actually touched
it, whereupon, it is said, a piece of the nose was broken off. But he
declined to view the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians
were extremely eager to show them, remarking, "I wished to see a king,
not corpses." For this same reason he would not enter the presence of
Apis, either, declaring that he was accustomed to worship gods, not
cattle. Afterwards he made Egypt tributary and gave it in charge of
Cornelius Gallus. For in view of the populousness of both the cities
and the country, the facile, fickle character of the inhabitants, and
the extent of the grain-supply and of the wealth, so far from daring to
entrust the land to any senator, he would not even grant a senator
permission to live in it, except as he personally made the concession
to him by name. On the other hand he did not allow the Egyptians to be
senators in Rome; but whereas he made various dispositions as regards
the several cities, he commanded the Alexandrians to conduct their
government without senators; with such capacity for revolution, I
suppose, did he credit them. And of the system then imposed upon them
most details are rigorously preserved at the present time, but they
have their senators both in Alexandria, beginning first under the
emperor Severus, and also in Rome, these having first been enrolled in
the senate in the reign of Severus' son Antoninus.
Thus was Egypt enslaved. All the inhabitants who resisted for a time
were finally subdued, as, indeed, Heaven very clearly indicated to them
beforehand. For it rained not only water where no drop had ever fallen
previously, but also blood; and there were flashes of armour from the
clouds as this bloody rain fell from them. Elsewhere there was the
clashing of drums and cymbals and the notes of flutes and trumpets, and
a serpent of huge size suddenly appeared to them and uttered an
incredibly loud hiss. Meanwhile comets were seen and dead men's ghosts
appeared, the statues frowned, and Apis bellowed a note of lamentation
and burst into tears.
So much for these events. In the palace quantities of treasure were
found. For Cleopatra had taken practically all the offerings from even
the holiest shrines and so helped the Romans swell their spoils without
incurring any defilement on their own part. Large sums were also
obtained from every man against whom any charge of misdemeanour were
brought. And apart from these, all the rest, even though no particular
complaint could be lodged against them, had two-thirds of their
property demanded of them. Out of this wealth all the troops received
what was owing them, and those who were with Caesar at the time got in
addition a thousand sesterces on condition of not plundering the city.
Repayment was made in full to those who had previously advanced loans,
and to both the senators and the knights who had taken part in the war
large sums were given. In fine, the Roman empire was enriched and its
temples adorned.
After accomplishing the things just related Caesar founded a city there
on the very site of the battle and gave to it the same name and the
same games as to the city he had founded previously. He also cleared
out some of the canals and dug others over again, besides attending to
other important matters. Then he went through Syria into the province
of Asia and passed the winter there settling the various affairs of the
subject nations as well as those of the Parthians. It seems there had
been dissension among the Parthians and a certain Tiridates had risen
against Phraates; and hitherto, as long as Antony's opposition lasted,
even after the naval battle, Caesar had not only not attached himself
to either side, though they sought his alliance, but had not even
answered them except to say that he would think the matter over. His
excuse was that he was busy with Egypt, but in reality he wanted them
in the meantime to exhaust themselves by fighting against each other.
But now that Antony was dead and of the two combatants Tiridates,
defeated, had taken refuge in Syria, and Phraates, victorious, had sent
envoys, he entered into friendly negotiations with the latter; and,
without promising to aid Tiridates, he permitted him to live in Syria.
He received from Phraates on of his sons by way of conferring a favour
upon him, and taking him to Rome, kept him as a hostage.
During this time and still earlier the Romans at home had passed many
resolutions in honour of Caesar's naval victory. Thus they granted him
a triumph, as over Cleopatra, an arch adorned with trophies at
Brundisium and another in the Roman Forum. Moreover, they decreed that
the foundation of the shrine of Julius should be adorned with the beaks
of the captured ships and that a festival should be held every four
years in honour of Octavius; that there should also be a thanksgiving
on his birthday and on the anniversary of the announcement of his
victory; also that when he should enter the city the Vestal Virgins and
the senate and the people with their wives and children should go out
to meet him. But it would be quite superfluous to go on and mention the
prayers, the images, the privilege of the front sea, and all the other
honours of the sort. At the beginning, then, they not only voted him
these honours but also either took down or effaced the memorials of
Antony, declared the day on which he had been born accursed, and
forbade the use of the surname Marcus by any of his kind. When,
however, they learned of Antony's death, the news of which came while
Cicero, the son of Cicero, was consul for a part of the year, some held
that it had come to pass not without divine direction, since the
consul's father had owed his death chiefly to Antony; and they voted to
Caesar crowns and thanksgiving in great number and granted him the
privilege of celebrating another triumph, this time over the Egyptians.
For neither on the previous occasion nor at this time did they mention
by name Antony and the other Romans who had been vanquished with him
and thus imply that it was proper to celebrate their defeat. The day on
which Alexandria had been captured they declared a lucky day, and
directed that in future years it should be taken by the inhabitants of
that city as the starting-point in their reckoning of time. They also
decreed that Caesar should hold the tribunician power for life, that he
should aid those who called upon him for help both within the pomerium
and outside for a distance of one mile,— a privilege possessed by none
of the tribunes,— also that he should judge appealed cases, and that in
all the courts his vote was to be cast as Athena's vote. The priests
and priestesses also in their prayers in behalf of the people and the
senate were to pray for him likewise, and at all banquets, not only
public but private as well, everybody was to pour a libation to him.
These were the decrees passed at that time; and when he was consul for
the fifth time, with Sextus Apuleius, they ratified all his acts by
oath on the very first day of January. When the letter came regarding
the Parthians, they further arranged that his name should be included
in their hymns equally with those of the gods; that a tribe should be
called the "Julian" after him; that he should wear the triumphal crown
at all the festivals; that the senators who had participated in his
victory should take part in the triumphal procession arrayed in
purple-bordered togas; that the day on which he entered the city should
be honoured with sacrifices by the whole population and be held sacred
for evermore; and that he might choose priests even beyond the regular
number,— as many, in fact, as he should wish on any occasion. This
last-named privilege, handed down from that time, was afterwards
indefinitely extended, so that I need not henceforth make a point of
giving the exact number of such officials. Now Caesar accepted all but
a few of these honours, though he expressly requested that one of them,
the proposal that the whole population of the city should go out to
meet him, should not be put into effect. Nevertheless, the action which
pleased him more than all the decrees was the closing by the senate of
the gates of Janus, implying that all their wars had entirely ceased,
and the taking of the augurium salutis, which at this time fallen into
disuse for the reasons I have mentioned. To be sure, there were still
under arms the Treveri, who had brought in the Germans to help them,
and the Cantabri, the Vaccaei, and the Astures,— the three last-named
of whom were later subjugated by Statilius Taurus, and the former by
Nonius Gallus,— and there were also numerous other disturbances going
on in various regions; yet inasmuch as nothing of importance resulted
from them, the Romans at the time did not consider that they were
engaged in war, nor have I, for my part, anything notable to record
about them.
Caesar, meanwhile, besides attending to the general business, gave
permission for the dedication of sacred precincts in Ephesus and in
Nicaea to Rome and to Caesar, his father, whom he named the hero
Julius. These cities had at that time attained chief place in Asia and
in Bithynia respectively. He commanded that the Romans resident in
these cities should pay honour to these two divinities; but he
permitted the aliens, whom he styled Hellenes, to consecrate precincts
to himself, the Asians to have theirs in Pergamum and the Bithynians
theirs in Nicomedia. This practice, beginning under him, has been
continued under other emperors, not only in the case of the Hellenic
nations but also in that of all the others, in so far as they are
subject to the Romans. For in the capital itself and in Italy generally
no emperor, however worthy of renown he has been, has dared to do this;
still, even there various divine honours are bestowed after their death
upon such emperors as have ruled uprightly, and, in fact, shrines are
built to them.
All this took place in the winter; and the Pergamenians also received
authority to hold the "sacred" games, as they called them, in honour of
Caesar's temple. In the course of the summer Caesar crossed over to
Greece and to Italy; and when he entered the city, not only all the
citizens offered sacrifice, as has been mentioned, but even the consul
Valerius Potitus. Caesar, to be sure, was consul all that year as for
the two preceding years, but Potitus was the successor of Sextus. It
was he who publicly and in person offered sacrifices on behalf of the
senate and of the people upon Caesar's arrival, a thing that had never
been done in the case of any other person. After this Caesar bestowed
eulogies and honours upon his lieutenants, as was customary, and to
Agrippa he further granted, among other distinctions, a dark blue flag
in honour of his naval victory, and he gave gifts to the soldiers; to
the people he distributed four hundred sesterces apiece, first to the
men who were adults, and afterwards to the children because of his
nephew Marcellus. In view of all this, and because he would not accept
from the cities of Italy the gold required for the crowns they had
voted him, and because, furthermore, he not only paid all the debts he
himself owed to others, as has been stated, but also did not insist on
the payment of others' debts to him, the Romans forgot all their
unpleasant experiences and viewed his triumph with pleasure, quite as
if the vanquished had all been foreigners. So vast an amount of money,
in fact, circulated through all parts of the city alike, that the price
of goods rose and loans for which the borrower had been glad to pay
twelve per cent. could now be had for one third that rate. As for the
triumph, Caesar celebrated on the first day his victories over the
Pannonians and Dalmatians, the Iapydes and their neighbours, and some
Germans and Gauls. For Gaius Carrinas had subdued the Morini and others
who had revolted with them, and had repulsed the Suebi, who had crossed
the Rhine to wage war. Not only did Carrinas, therefore, celebrate the
triumph,— and that notwithstanding that his father had been put to
death by Sulla and that he himself along with the others in like
condition had once been debarred from holding office,— but Caesar also
celebrated it, since the credit of the victory properly belonged to his
position as supreme commander. This was the first day's celebration. On
the second day the naval victory at Actium was commemorated, and on the
third the subjugation of Egypt. Now all the processions proved notable,
thanks to the spoils from Egypt,— in such quantities, indeed, had
spoils been gathered there that they sufficed for all the processions,—
but the Egyptian celebration surpassed them all in costliness and
magnificence. Among other features, an effigy of the dead Cleopatra
upon a couch was carried by, so that in a way she, too, together with
the other captives and with her children, Alexander, also called
Helios, and Cleopatra, called also Selene, was a part of the spectacle
and a trophy in the procession. After this came Caesar, riding into the
city behind them all. He did everything in the customary manner, except
that he permitted his fellow-consul and the other magistrates, contrary
to precedent, to follow him along with the senators who had
participated in the victory; for it was usual for such officials to
march in advance and for only the senators to follow.
After finishing this celebration Caesar dedicated the temple of
Minerva, called also the Chalcidicum, and the Curia Iulia, which had
been built in honour of his father. In the latter he set up the statue
of Victory which is still in existence, thus signifying that it was
from her that he had received the empire. It had belonged to the people
of Tarentum, whence it was now brought to Rome, placed in the
senate-chamber, and decked with the spoils of Egypt. The same course
was followed in the case of the shrine of Julius which was consecrated
at this time, for many of these spoils were placed in it also; and
others were dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus and to Juno and Minerva,
after all the objects in these temples which were supposed to have been
placed there previously as dedications, or were actually dedications,
had by decree been taken down at this time as defiled. Thus Cleopatra,
though defeated and captured, was nevertheless glorified, inasmuch as
her adornments repose as dedications in our temples and she herself is
seen in gold in the shrine of Venus.
At the consecration of the shrine to Julius there were all kinds of
contests, and the boys of the patricians performed the equestrian
exercise called "Troy," and men of the same rank contended with
chargers, with pairs, and with four-horse teams; furthermore, one
Quintus Vitellius, a senator, fought as a gladiator. Wild beasts and
tame animals were slain in vast numbers, among them a rhinoceros and a
hippopotamus, beasts then seen for the first time in Rome. As regards
the nature of the hippopotamus, it has been described by many and far
more have seen it. The rhinoceros, on the other hand, is in general
somewhat like an elephant, but it has also a horn on its very nose and
has got its name because of this. These beasts, accordingly, were
brought in, and moreover Dacians and Suebi fought in crowds with one
another. The latter are Germans, the former Scythians of a sort. The
Suebi, to be exact, dwell beyond the Rhine (though many people
elsewhere claim their name), and the Dacians on both sides of the
Ister; those of the latter, however, who live on this side of the river
near the country of the Triballi are reckoned in with the district of
Moesia and are called Moesians, except by those living in the immediate
neighbourhood, while those on the other side are called Dacians and are
either a branch of the Getae are Thracians belonging to the Dacian race
that once inhabited Rhodope. Now these Dacians had before this time
sent envoys to Caesar; but when they obtained none of their requests,
they went over to Antony. They proved of no great assistance to him,
however, owing to strife among themselves, and some who were afterwards
captured were now matched against the Suebi. The whole spectacle lasted
many days, as one would expect, and there was no interruption, even
though Caesar fell ill, but it was carried on in his absence under the
direction of others. On one of the days of this celebration the
senators gave banquets in the vestibules of their several homes; but
what the occasion was for their doing this, I do not know, since it is
not recorded.
These were the events of those days. And while Caesar was still in his
fourth consulship, Statilius Taurus both constructed at his own expense
and dedicated with a gladiatorial combat a hunting-theatre of stone in
the Campus Martius. Because of this he was permitted by the people to
choose one of the praetors each year.
During the same period in which these events occurred Marcus Crassus
was sent into Macedonia and Greece and carried on war with the Dacians
and Bastarnae. I have already stated who the former were and why they
had become hostile; the Bastarnae, on the other hand, who are properly
classed as Scythians, had at this time crossed the Ister and subdued
the part of Moesia opposite them, and afterwards subdued the Triballi
who adjoin this district and the Dardani who inhabit the Triballian
country. And as long as they were thus engaged, they had no trouble
with the Romans; but when they crossed Haemus and overran the part of
Thrace belonging to the Dentheleti, which was under treaty with the
Romans, then Crassus, partly to defend Sitas, king of the Dentheleti,
who was blind, but chiefly out of fear for Macedonia, went out to meet
them. By his mere approach he threw them into a panic and drove them
from the country without a battle. Next he pursued them as they were
retiring homeward, gained possession of the region called Segetica, and
invading Moesia, ravaged the country and made an assault upon one of
the strongholds. Then, although his advance line met with a repulse
when the Moesians, thinking it an isolated force, made a sortie,
nevertheless, when he reinforced it with his whole remaining army, he
hurled the enemy back and besieged and destroyed the place. While he
was accomplishing this, the Bastarnae checked their flight and halted
near the Cedrus river to observe what would take place. And when, after
conquering the Moesians, Crassus set out against them also, they sent
envoys bidding him not to pursue them, since they had done the Romans
no harm. Crassus detained the envoys, on the plea that he would give
them their answer the following day, treated them kindly in various
ways, and made them drunk, so that he learned all their plans; for the
whole Scythian race is insatiable in their use of wine and quietly
becomes sodden with it. Meanwhile Crassus moved forward into a forest
during the night, stationed scouts in front of it, and halted his army
there. Then, when the Bastarnae, in the belief that the scouts were all
alone, rushed to attack them and pursued them as they retreated into
the thick of the forest, he destroyed many of them on the spot and many
others in the rout which followed. For not only were they hindered by
their waggons, which were in the rear, but their desire to save their
wives and their children was also instrumental in their defeat. Crassus
himself slew their king Deldo and would have dedicated his armour as
spolia opima to Jupiter Feretrius had he been general in supreme
command. Such was the nature of this engagement. As for the remainder
of the Bastarnae, some perished by taking refuge in a grove, which was
then set on fire on all sides, and others by rushing into a fort, in
which they were annihilated; still others were destroyed by leaping
into the Ister, or as they were scattered here and there through the
country. But some survived even so and seized a strong position, where
Crassus besieged them in vain for several days. Then with the aid of
Roles, king of a tribe of the Getae, he destroyed them. Now Roles, when
he visited Caesar, was treated as his friend and ally because of this
service; and the captives were distributed among the soldiers.
After accomplishing this task Crassus turned his attention to the
Moesians; and partly by persuasion in some cases, partly by terrifying
them, partly also by applying force, he subdued all except a very few,
though only after great hardships and dangers. And for the time being,
since it was winter, he retired into friendly territory, after
suffering greatly from the cold and much more still at the hands of the
Thracians, through whose country he was returning in the belief that it
was friendly. Hence he decided to be content with what he had already
accomplished. For sacrifices and a triumph had been voted, not only to
Caesar, but to him also; nevertheless, he did not receive the title of
imperator, as some report, but Caesar alone assumed it. The Bastarnae,
now, angered at their disasters and learning that he would make no
further campaigns against them, turned again upon the Dentheleti and
Sitas, employ they regarded as having been the chief cause of their
evils. Thus it came about that Crassus reluctantly took the field; and
falling upon them unexpectedly after advancing by forced marches, he
conquered them and imposed such terms of peace as he pleased. And now
that he had once taken up arms again, he conceived a desire to punish
the Thracians who had harassed him during his return from Moesia; for
it was reported at this time that they were fortifying positions and
were eager for war. He succeeded in subduing some of them, namely the
Maedi and the Serdi, though not without difficulty, by conquering them
in battle and cutting off the hands of the captives; and he overran the
rest of the country except the territory of the Odrysae. These he
spared because they are attached to the service of Dionysus, and had
come to meet him on this occasion without their arms; and he also
granted them the land in which they magnify the god, taking it away
from the Bessi who were occupying it.
While he was thus engaged, Roles, who had become embroiled with Dapyx,
himself also king of a tribe of the Getae, sent for him. Crassus went
to his aid, and by hurling the horse of his opponents back upon their
infantry he so thoroughly terrified the latter also that what followed
was no longer a battle but a great slaughter of fleeing men of both
arms. Next he cut off Dapyx, who had taken refuge in a fort, and
besieged him. In the course of the siege someone hailed him from the
walls in Greek, obtained a conference with him, and arranged to betray
the place. The barbarians, thus captured, turned upon one another, and
Dapyx was killed along with many others. His brother, however, Crassus
took alive, and not only did him no harm but actually released him.
After finishing this campaign Crassus led his troops against the cave
called Ciris. For the natives in great numbers had occupied this cave,
which is extremely large and so capable of defence that the tradition
obtains that the Titans took refuge there after their defeat suffered
at the hands of the gods; and here they had brought together all their
herds and their other most cherished belongings. Crassus first sought
out all the entrances to the cave, which are tortuous and difficult to
discover, walled them up, and in this way subdued the men by famine.
After this success he did not leave in piece the rest of the Getae,
either, even though they had no connexion with Dapyx, but he marched
upon Genucla, the most strongly defended fortress of the kingdom of
Zyraxes, because he heard that the standards which the Bastarnae had
taken from Gaius Antonius near the city of the Istrians were there. His
assault was made both by land and from the Ister (the city is built
upon the river), and in a short time, though with much toil, despite
the absence of Zyraxes, he took the place. The king, it seems, as soon
as he heard of the Romans' approach, had set off with money to the
Scythians to seek an alliance, and had not returned in time.
These were his achievements among the Getae. And when some of the
Moesians who had been subdued rose in revolt, he won them back by the
aid of lieutenants, while he himself made a campaign against the
Artacii and a few other tribes who had never been captured and would
not acknowledge his authority, priding themselves greatly upon this
point and at the same time inspiring in the others both anger and a
disposition to rebel. He brought them to terms, partly by force, after
they had made no little trouble, and partly by fear for their
countrymen who were being captured.
All these operations took a long time; but the facts I record, as well
as the names, are in accordance with the tradition which has been
handed down. In ancient times, it is true, Moesians and Getae occupied
all the land between Haemus and the Ister; but as time went on some of
them changed their names, and since then there have been included under
the name of Moesia all the tribes living above Dalmatia, Macedonia, and
Thrace, and separated from Pannonia by the Savus, a tributary of the
Ister. Two of the many tribes found among them are those formerly
called the Triballi, and the Dardani, who still retain their old name.
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